Online Sources for Academic Writing

I. Importance of finding reliable sources for academic writing #

• Using credible sources is crucial to ensure the validity and credibility of our thesis work.
• Incorporating peer-reviewed articles and scholarly journals helps strengthen the academic foundation of our research.
• Incorporating peer-reviewed articles and scholarly journals also shows your reader that you have done thorough research on your topic.

II. Understanding Academic Source Requirements #

1. Define what qualifies as an academic source.
2. Avoid unreliable sources.

1. Define what qualifies as an academic source: #

• Academic sources refer to scholarly, peer-reviewed articles, books, conference papers, or reputable websites specifically related to our research field.
• Peer-review is a crucial step in academic publishing. It is a process of quality control, validation of findings and results, identification of errors and bias, and most importantly, prevention of misinformation and fraud.
• For example, when working on your linguistic thesis, you will most likely relied on linguistic journals like Journal of Linguistics, Journal of Sociolinguistics or Natural Language & Linguistic Theory.

2. Avoid unreliable sources #

• Unreliable sources are those that lack credibility or accuracy.
• They may provide incorrect or biased information, lack proper peer review, or originate from questionable or non-authoritative sources.
• Here are some indicators to help identify unreliable sources:
  • Personal Blogs and Websites: Information obtained solely from personal blogs or websites without verifiable credentials should be approached with caution. These sources often lack rigorous fact-checking and may present subjective opinions instead of verified research.
  • Wikipedia: While Wikipedia can be a useful starting point for gathering background information, it is not considered a reliable academic source because the content can be edited by anyone, potentially leading to inaccuracies. Instead, follow the references provided on Wikipedia pages to access more authoritative sources.
  • Social Media: Information shared on social media platforms may lack proper vetting and verification. It’s important to cross-reference any claims or facts found on social media with reputable sources before using them in academic writing.

III. Choosing Reliable Search Engines and Databases #

Popular academic search engines you need to know:

• Linguistics Abstracts Online: This database, compiled by the International Linguistic Association (ILA), provides comprehensive coverage of scholarly articles in various branches of linguistics. It includes abstracts and bibliographic information from a wide range of linguistic journals.
• Linguistics and Language Behavior Abstracts (LLBA): LLBA is a highly respected database that covers literature related to all aspects of linguistics and language sciences. It includes references to journal articles, conference papers, book chapters, dissertations, and more.
• JSTOR: JSTOR is an extensive digital library offering access to a wide array of scholarly journals, books, and primary sources across various disciplines. It includes linguistic journals and provides historical depth in linguistic research.
• Applied Linguistics: Focuses on the application of linguistic theories and research in practical language-related contexts.
• Discourse and Communication: Explores various aspects of discourse and communication, including language use, interaction, and social practices.
• Discourse Studies: Examines the role of language and discourse in shaping social, cultural, and political phenomena.
• Journal of Sociolinguistics: Investigates the relationship between language and society, including topics such as multilingualism, language variation, and language policy
• Metaphor and Symbol: Explores the role of metaphor and other symbolic forms in language and cognition.
• Social Semiotics: Examines how signs and symbols shape social meaning and communication in diverse contexts.
• TESOL Quarterly: Publishes research related to Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages (TESOL) and second language acquisition.
• Chinese Semiotic Studies: Focuses on semiotic theory and analysis within the context of Chinese language and culture.
• Asian Englishes: Explores the varieties of English spoken in Asia and their sociolinguistic and pragmatic implications.
• Discourse and Society: Examines the relationship between discourse and social structures, institutions, and power dynamics.
• Discourse, Context and Media: Investigates the interplay between discourse, media, and their cultural and sociopolitical contexts.
• ELT Journal: Publishes research related to English Language Teaching (ELT) methodologies, approaches, and classroom practices.
• Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching: Explores innovative approaches, technologies, and practices in language learning and teaching.
• Intercultural Pragmatics: Focuses on how pragmatics and cultural factors influence communication between individuals from different cultures.
• Journal of English as a Lingua Franca: Examines the use of English as a global communication tool among speakers from different language backgrounds.
• Journal of Language and Politics: Investigates the intersection of language, discourse, and politics in various sociopolitical contexts.
• Journal of Language, Identity, and Education: Explores the complex relationship between language, identity formation, and educational contexts.
• Journal of Pragmatics: Focuses on the study of language use in context, including aspects of meaning, communication, and interaction.
• Journal of Second Language Pronunciation: Publishes research related to second language acquisition and pronunciation.
• Language and Communication: Explores the interface between language and communication in various social, cultural, and professional contexts.
• Language and Intercultural Communication: Examines the role of language in intercultural interactions and understanding.
• Language Ecology: Focuses on the ecological and social aspects of language, including language endangerment and revitalization.
• Language in Society: Investigates the relationship between language, society, and culture, covering topics such as language variation, social identity, and language policy.
• Language Sciences: Publishes research across various linguistic subdisciplines, including phonetics, syntax, semantics, and psycholinguistics.
• Language, Culture and Society: Explores the interconnections between language, culture, and society, addressing issues such as language ideology, multilingualism, and language planning.
• Linguistic Landscape: An International Journal: Examines the visual representation of languages in public spaces and its sociolinguistic implicat ions.
• Linguistics and Education: Explores the relationship between linguistics and education, focusing on language learning and teaching practices.
• Linguistics and Language Compass: Provides comprehensive reviews and surveys of current research across various linguistic subfields.
• Pragmatics and Society: Investigates pragmatic aspects of language use in social and cultural contexts.
• Text & Talk: Focuses on discourse analysis, conversation analysis, and the study of language use in interactional settings.
• Visual Communication: Explores the visual aspects of communication, including the use of images, visuals, and multimodal texts.
• World Englishes: Examines the global variation and use of English in different linguistic and cultural contexts.
• Asian-Pacific Journal of Second and Foreign Language Education: Publishes research related to second and foreign language education in the Asia- Pacific region.
• Asian EFL Journal: Provides a platform for research and discussions related to English as a Foreign Language (EFL) teaching and learning in Asian contexts.
• English Language Teaching: Covers various aspects of English language teaching, including methodologies, materials, and assessment.
• Hong Kong Journal of Applied Linguistics: Publishes research focused on applied linguistics, language education, and language policy issues in the Hong Kong context.

IV. Evaluating Online Sources #

Criteria for evaluating the credibility of online sources:

• Consider factors such as author credentials, affiliation with reputable institutions, publication date, and peer-reviewed publication.
• Additionally, scrutinize bias, conflicts of interest, and funding sources. Websites ending in .gov or .edu are often reliable sources of information.

An example: how to search accurately across databases? #

Let’s demonstrate how to use advanced search features to refine results in linguistic research using the example of studying language acquisition in bilingual children. We’ll assume we’re using a database like JSTOR or Linguistics Abstracts Online.

1. Keyword Search: Start with a basic keyword search using terms related to your research, such as “language acquisition,” “bilingualism,” and “children.” This will give you a broad set of results.
2. Boolean Operators: To narrow down your results, you can use Boolean operators like “AND,” “OR,” and “NOT” to combine or exclude specific terms. For example:
   • “language acquisition” AND “bilingualism” AND “children”: This search will retrieve articles that mention all three terms, narrowing down the focus to bilingual children’s language acquisition specifically.
   • “language acquisition” OR “second language acquisition”: This search will retrieve articles that mention either “language acquisition” or “second language acquisition,” broadening the scope to include studies on monolingual and bilingual language development.
   • “language acquisition” NOT “adults”: This search will exclude articles that discuss language acquisition in adults, allowing you to focus solely on child language acquisition.
3. Phrase Searching: Use quotation marks ("") to search for exact phrases. For example: “code-switching in bilingual children”: This search will retrieve articles that specifically address code-switching in bilingual children, which is a common phenomenon in language acquisition.
4. Proximity Operators: Some databases have proximity operators that allow you to search for terms within a certain distance of each other. For example: “language acquisition” NEAR/5 “bilingual children”: This search will retrieve articles where “language acquisition” and “bilingual children” appear within five words of each other, indicating a close relationship between the two concepts.
5. Limiters and Filters: Many databases offer limiters and filters to refine your search results further. These can include publication date, language, article type, or specific journals. For example: Limit by Publication Date: Set a specific time frame to retrieve the most recent research in the field of language acquisition in bilingual children. Limit by Journal: Select prominent linguistic journals known for publishing research on language acquisition and bilingualism, such as Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, Applied Psycholinguistics, or International Journal of Bilingualism. Note: access to full-text articles may require subscription to websites or may be completed through inter- library loan systems.

V. How to Cite? #

1. How to incorporate other people’s ideas into your writing? #

When incorporating texts from journals or books into your academic writing, it’s essential to integrate the ideas and information smoothly while providing proper attribution. Here are 5 commonly-used citation techniques you should know:

1. Introduce the author and their work:
   • Begin by introducing the author’s name and the source you are referencing.
   • Example: According to Fairclough (2003), in his book “Analysing Discourse,” he highlights the importance of critical discourse analysis in understanding power relations within society.
2. Provide context and summarize key points:
   • Briefly explain the main concepts or arguments from the text you are referencing.
   • Example: Fairclough argues that critical discourse analysis helps uncover how language practices create and maintain power structures by examining the interaction between discourse and social structures.
3. Include an embedded citation:
   • Insert an in-text citation to acknowledge the specific source of the information.
   • Example: Fairclough (2003) further explains that critical discourse analysis aims to reveal the hidden ideologies and social inequalities inherent in language use.
4. Analyze and discuss the findings or ideas:
   • Engage with the ideas presented in the text and analyze them within the context of your own research or argument.
   • Example: Building upon Fairclough’s framework , this study will employ critical discourse analysis to examine media representations of gender in political speeches, aiming to uncover underlying power dynamics and ideological biases.
5. Provide additional evidence or support:
   • Augment your discussion by integrating other relevant sources that align with or further expand on the ideas you are presenting.
   • Example: This perspective is supported by Van Dijk (1998) , who argues that critical discourse analysis enables a better understanding of how social actors reproduce dominant ideologies through linguistic practices.
6. Summarizing research findings by quoting a series of similar studies
   • If you’d like to introduce some widely acknowledged ideas/findings in a field of study, you can quote a number of studies all at once.
   • Example: Mainstream media have a significant effect on naturalization of linguistic ideologies, and there are a number of examples reported in recent studies whose data deal with representations of linguistic ideologies in film, TV shows, newspaper, and the internet (e.g. Higgins and Furuk awa, 2012; Lippi-Green, 2012; Stamou, 2011; Stamou and Chtistou, 2017; SturtzSreetharan, 2015, 2016; Wong, 2016).

It’s important to maintain a balance between incorporating ideas from other sources and expressing your own analysis and interpretation. Aim to critically engage with the texts you reference, highlighting their relevance to your research while offering your own insights and contributions to the essay.

Remember to properly format all citations according to the required citation style (APA, MLA, etc.) and provide a complete reference entry in the bibliography or reference list at the end of your paper.

2. How to properly format citation using different citation styles? #

Here’s an overview of how to format citations using three commonly used citation styles: APA (American Psychological Association), MLA (Modern Language Association), and Chicago.

APA style #

Book:

• In-text citation format: (Author’s Last Name, Year)
• Example: According to Gee (2014), discourse analysis is an effective tool for examining social interactions and power dynamics in language use.
• Bibliography citation format: Author’s Last Name, Author’s First Initial. (Year). Title of Book. Publisher.
• Example: Gee, J. P. (2014). An Introduction to Discourse Analysis: Theory and Method. Routledge.

Journal Article:

• In-text citation format: (Author’s Last Name, Year)
• Example: Fairclough (2003) suggests that discourse analysis enables researchers to analyze textual elements and their social implications.
• Bibliography citation format: Author’s Last Name, Author’s First Initial. (Year). Title of Article. Journal Name, Volume(Issu e), Page range. DOI or URL
• Example: Fairclough, N. (2003). Analyzing Discourse: Textual Analysis for Social Research. Routledge, 10(2), 245-262. doi:10.xxxx/xxxxx

Note: DOI stands for Digital Object Identifier. It is a unique alphanumeric string assigned to a digital object, such as an article, report, or dataset, to provide a persistent link to its location on the internet. Including a DOI in your citation can help others locate the exact resource you are referencing, even if the URL or webpage changes over time. DOIs are commonly used in academic and scientific publications, and many scholarly articles now have DOIs assigned to them. When providing a citation with a DOI, it is typically included as part of the reference if available. The DOI is usually formatted as a URL beginning with “https://doi.org/" or simply as the DOI number itself.

Conference Paper:

• In-text citation format: (Author’s Last Name, Year)
• Example: van Dijk (2017) argues that critical discourse analysis allows for the examination of power relations and ideologies embedded within texts and conversations.
• Bibliography citation format: Author’s Last Name, Author’s First Initial. (Year). Title of Paper. In Editor’s First Initial. Editor’s Last Name (Eds.), Proceedings of the Conference Name (pp. page range). Publisher.
• Example: van Dijk, T. A. (2017). The Discourse-Structuralist Approach to Critical Discourse Analysis. In V. Koller & W. Oesterreicher (Eds.), Critical Discourse Studies in Context and Cognition (pp. 25 -38). Cambridge Scholars Publishing.

Website:

• In-text citation format: (Author(s) or Organization, Year)
• Example: According to Wodak (2019), critical discourse analysis provides insights into how social identities and power relations are constructed through language.
• Bibliography citation format: Author(s) or Organization. (Year). Title of Webpage. Site Name. Retrieved from URL
• Example: Wodak, R. (2019). Critical Discourse Analysis. DiscourseNet. Retrieved from https://discourseanalysis.net/topics/critical-discourse-analysis

MLA style #

Book:

• In-text citation format: (Author’s Last Name page number)
• Example: Gee argues that discourse analysis unveils the underlying power dynamics and ideologies shaped by language (45).
• Bibliography citation format: Author’s Last Name, Author’s First Name. Title of Book. Publisher, Year.
• Example: *Gee, James Paul. An Introduction to Discourse Analysis: Theory and Method. Routledge, 2014 *. Journal article:
• In-text citation format: (Author’s Last Name page number)
• Example: Fairclough highlights the importance of analyzing discourse to uncover social meaning and power dynamics within texts (245).
• Bibliography citation format: Author’s Last Name, Author’s First Name. “Title of Article.” Journal Name, vol. #, no. #, Date, pp. page range. DOI or URL
• Example: Fairclough, Norman. “Analyzing Discourse: Textual Analysis for Social Research.” Routledge, vol. 10, no. 2, 2003, pp. 245 -262. doi:10.xxxx/xxxxx

Conference paper:

• In-text citation format: (Author’s Last Name)
• Example: According to van Dijk, critical discourse analysis provides a framework to examine the power structures and ideologies embedded in communication (van Dijk ).
• Bibliography citation format: Author’s Last Name, Author’s First Name. “Title of Paper.” Proceedings of the Conference Name, edited by Editor’s First Name Editor’s Last Name, Publisher, Year, pp. page range.
• Example: van Dijk, Teun A. “The Discourse-Structuralist Approach to Critical Discourse Analysis.” Critical Discourse Studies in Context and Cognition, edited by Veronik a Koller and Wilhelm Oesterreicher, Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2017, pp. 25 -38

Website:

• In-text citation format: (Author(s) or Organization)
• Example: Wodak emphasizes the critical role of discourse analysis in uncovering the power dynamics and social constructions present in language (Wodak).
• Bibliography citation format: Author(s) or Organization. Title of Webpage. Site Name, Year. URL.
• Example: Wodak, Ruth. “Critical Discourse Analysis.” DiscourseNet, 2019, https://discourseanalysis.net/topics/critical-discourse-analysis.

Chicago style #

Books:

• In-text citation format: (Author’s Last Name Year, page number)
• Example: According to Gee, discourse analysis helps uncover the underlying power dynamics and social meanings constructed through language (Gee 2014, 45).
• Bibliography citation format: Author’s Last Name, Author’s First Name. Title of Book. Place of Publication: Publisher, Year.
• Example: Gee, James Paul. An Introduction to Discourse Analysis: Theory and Method. New York: Routledge, 2014.

Journal article:

• In-text citation format: (Author’s Last Name Year, page number)
• Example: Fairclough argues that critical discourse analysis unveils the complex interplay between language, power, and social context (Fairclough 2003, 245).
• Bibliography citation format: Author’s Last Name, Author’s First Name. “Title of Article.” Journal Name volume number, no. issue number (Year): page range.
• Example: Fairclough, Norman. “Analyzing Discourse: Textual Analysis for Social Research.” Routledge 10, no. 2 (2003): 245-262.

Conference paper:

• In-text citation format: (Author’s Last Name, Year)
• Example: According to van Dijk, critical discourse analysis provides a framework to examine the power structures and ideologies embedded in communication (van Dijk , 2017).
• Bibliography citation format: Author’s Last Name, Author’s First Name. “Title of Paper.” In Proceedings of the Conference Name, edited by Editor’s First Name Editor’s Last Name, page range. Place of Publication: Publisher, Year.
• Example: van Dijk, Teun A. “The Discourse-Structuralist Approach to Critical Discourse Analysis.” In Critical Discourse Studies in Context and Cognition, edited by Veronik a Koller and Wilhelm Oesterreicher, 25 -38. Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2017.

Website:

• In-text citation format: (Author(s) or Organization, Year)
• Example: Wodak emphasizes the critical role of discourse analysis in uncovering the power dynamics and social constructions present in language (Wodak , 2019).
• Bibliography citation format: Author(s) or Organization. “Title of Webpage.” Site Name. URL (accessed Month Day, Year).
• Example: Wodak, Ruth. “Critical Discourse Analysis.” DiscourseNet. https://discourseanalysis.net/topics/critical-discourse-analysis (accessed November 15, 2021).

3. Citation in footnotes #

People use footnotes in academic writing to provide additional information, explanations, or citations for specific points made in the text. Footnotes are typically used in Chicago Style (Notes and Bibliography format), which is common in the humanities.

Here’s an example of how to cite in a footnote:

Book:

Example: *According to Gee, discourse analysis helps uncover the underlying power dynamics and social meanings constructed through language.^1

*Corresponding footnote: ^1 James Paul Gee, An Introduction to Discourse Analysis: Theory and Method (New York: Routledge, 2014), 45.

In this example, the superscript “1” within the text corresponds to the corresponding footnote at the bottom of the page. The footnote contains the full citation details for the source, including the author’s name, book title, place of publication, publisher, and the specific page number being referenced.

Please note that citation in footnotes should also be included in the bibliography at the end of the paper/essay.

VI. Saving and Managing Sources #

Tools for organizing and saving sources, such as reference management software like EndNote, Mendeley, or Zotero. To generate a bibliography using EndNote, you can follow these general steps:

1. Importing references:
   • Open EndNote and import your references into the library. This can be done by manually entering the reference information, importing from online databases or files, or syncing with other platforms.
2. Organizing references:
   • Organize your references into groups or folders in EndNote based on your preferences or specific projects.
3. Inserting citations:
   • Open your document (e.g., Microsoft Word) and place the cursor where you want to insert a citation.
   • In EndNote, select the reference(s) you want to cite and use the “Cite While You Write” feature to insert the citation into your document.
   • The citation will appear in the desired format according to the chosen citation style.
4. Choosing the citation style:
   • In EndNote, go to the “Bibliography” or “Format” menu and select the desired citation style (e.g., Chicago, APA, MLA).
   • This step ensures that the bibliography will be generated in the appropriate format.
5. Generating the bibliography:
   • Once you have inserted all the required citations in your document, place your cursor at the end of the document where you want to generate the bibliography.
   • In EndNote, go to the “Bibliography” or “Format” menu and choose the option to create the bibliography or references section.
   • EndNote will automatically create the bibliography, including all the cited references in the selected citation style.

VII. Avoiding Plagiarism #

• What is plagiarism?
• How to avoid plagiarism?

What is plagiarism? #

• Copying verbatim: Directly copying a portion of text from a source without using quotation marks and without providing a citation.
• Paraphrasing without attribution: Rewording someone else’s ideas or work without acknowledging the original source.
• Using someone else’s ideas or arguments without credit: Presenting another person’s concepts, theories, or arguments as if they are your own, even if you rephrase them.
• Self-plagiarism: Presenting your own previously published work without appropriate citation or disclosure, without clearly distinguishing it from new findings or research.
• Plagiarism is not limited to textual content; it can also involve other forms of intellectual property, such as images, graphics, tables, or data, without proper permission or acknowledgment.

How to avoid plagiarism? #

• Cite sources: Whenever you use someone else’s ideas, words, data, or any form of intellectual property, provide a proper citation or reference to acknowledge the original author or source.
• Use quotation marks: When directly quoting or using an exact phrase from a source, enclose it in quotation marks and provide an appropriate citation.
• Paraphrase accurately: If you rephrase someone else’s work, ensure that the meaning remains intact while expressing it in your own words. Still, credit the original source through proper citation.
• Maintain a reference list: Create a comprehensive list of all the sources you have used in your work and include them in a reference list or bibliography, following the required citation style.
• Understand citation styles: Familiarize yourself with the specific citation style guidelines (such as APA, MLA, Chicago) used by your academic institution or field of study to ensure proper formatting of citations and references.
• Seek permission for copyrighted material: If you intend to use copyrighted material beyond fair use limitations, obtain permission from the copyright holder and appropriately credit the source.

VIII. Conclusion #

Things we’ve covered in this article:

• Understanding the importance of finding reliable and legitimate sources for academic writing.
• What counts as a reliable and legitimate source?
• Where to find these reliable and legitimate sources for your research?
• How to evaluate the reliability of online sources?
• How to accurately search for information across sources?
• Saving and managing sources
• Avoiding plagiarism